Throne Biotechnologies Launch the Equity Crowdfunding

NOW LIVE: We are very excited that our equity crowdfunding campaign is live on StartEngine! The Press Release of this campaign has been widely published in major social media such as Time, Entrepreneur, US Weekly, Newsday, Washington Times, The Hill, Chicago Tribune, Daily Press, Reader’s Digest, Life and Style Magazine, Wall Street Business News, NBC-2, ABC-7, and etc.

Throne Biotechnologies (Throne), one of the global-leading biotech companies aiming to achieve the FDA approval on the Stem Cell Educator therapy and find a cure for type 1 diabetes, alopecia areata and other autoimmune diseases. Those interested in facilitating the clinical transition of Stem Cell Educator therapy can visit the Throne campaign page to learn more and invest on StartEngine: https://www.startengine.com/throne-biotechnologies

Throne Launches Equity Crowdfunding

To support the United States FDA-approved phase 2 clinical trials of Stem Cell Educator therapy and find a cure for type 1 diabetes and other autoimmune diseases, we are excited to announce that Throne Biotechnologies (Throne) launches the equity crowdfunding today through the platform at StartEngine. We encourage you joining this global effort and saving millions of lives!  

Dr. Yong Zhao will Give an Oral Presentation at the 13th International Congress on Autoimmunity in Athens

We are delighted to announce that Dr. Yong Zhao, founder and CEO at Throne, will give an oral presentation about the Stem Cell Educator therapy in type 1 diabetes at the 13th International Congress on Autoimmunity in June 10 -13, Athens. The International Congress on Autoimmunity is the largest multidisciplinary congress that discusses all aspects of the autoimmune-associated diseases under one roof, offering courses and lectures by some of the world’s most distinguished experts. 

Stem Cell Educator Therapy in Type 1 Diabetes: from the Bench to Clinical Trials

Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is an autoimmune disease that causes a deficit of pancreatic islet beta cells. Millions of individuals worldwide have T1D, and its incidence increases during the pandemic of COVID-19. Recent clinical trials have highlighted the limits of conventional immunotherapy in T1D and underscore the need for novel treatments that not only overcome multiple immune dysfunctions, but also help restore islet beta-cell function. To address these two key issues, Dr. Yong Zhao and his team have developed a unique and novel procedure designated the Stem Cell Educator therapy, based on the immune education by cord-blood-derived multipotent stem cells (CB-SC). Over the last 10 years, this technology has been evaluated through international multi-center clinical studies, which have demonstrated its clinical safety and efficacy in T1D and other autoimmune diseases. Mechanistic studies revealed that Educator therapy could fundamentally correct the autoimmunity and induce immune tolerance through multiple molecular and cellular mechanisms such as the expression of a master transcription factor autoimmune regulator (AIRE) in CB-SC for T-cell modulation, an expression of Galectin-9 on CB-SC to suppress activated B cells, and secretion of CB-SC-derived exosomes to polarize human blood monocytes/macrophages into type 2 macrophages. Educator therapy is the global-leading immunotherapy to date to safely and efficiently correct autoimmunity and restore islet beta cell function in T1D patients. It is highly expected that Educator therapy will achieve the expedited FDA approval under the designation of Regenerative Medicine Advanced Therapy (RMAT), due to an unmet medical need for the life-threating T1D patients.

For more information, please read the comprehensive review that is published in the peer-reviewed top immunology journal Autoimmunity Reviews on Jan. 31, 2022.

Stem Cell Educator Therapy Retains the Global-Leading Technology for the “Practical Cure” Projects in Type 1 Diabetes

Throne Biotechnologies (Throne) is developing Stem Cell Educator therapy to treat type 1 diabetes (T1D) and other autoimmune/inflammation-associated diseases. T1D is an autoimmune disease that causes a deficit of islet beta cells. Millions of individuals worldwide have T1D, and incidence increases markedly since COVID-19 pandemic started. T1D patients are at increased risk for severe COVID-19. Recent clinical trials have highlighted the limits of conventional immune therapy and underscore the need for novel approaches that not only overcome multiple immune dysfunctions, but also help restore islet beta-cell function. To address these two key issues, Throne has developed a unique and novel Educator therapy by using a new type of cord blood-derived multipotent stem cells (CB-SC). With this patented technology, a patient’s blood is circulated through a blood cell separator, where the patient’s immune cells are co-cultured with adherent CB-SC in vitro, and returns “educated” immune cells to the patient’s circulation. Over the last 10 years, our technology has been evaluated through international multi-center clinical studies, where we have demonstrated the clinical efficacy and safety of Educator Therapy. Notably, Educator therapy is the only therapy to date to safely and efficiently correct autoimmunity and restore beta-cell function in T1D patients. Our Stem Cell Educator technology is recognized and retained as the leading “Practical Cure Project” for type 1 diabetes out of 590 global projects (Juvenile Diabetes Cure Alliance (JDCA) 2021, New York). See the JDCA’s tenth annual edition of the State of the Cure.

Clinical Translational Potentials of Stem Cell-Derived Extracellular Vesicles in Type 1 Diabetes

Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is an organ-specific disease characterized by the deficiency of insulin caused by the autoimmune destruction of pancreatic islet β cells. Stem cell-based therapies play essential roles in immunomodulation and tissue regeneration, both of which hold great promise for treating many autoimmune dysfunctions. Exosomes are small extracellular vesicles (EVs) released by almost all types of cells, performing a variety of cell functions through the delivery of their molecular contents such as proteins, DNAs and RNAs. Increasing evidence suggests that stem cell-derived EVs exhibit similar functions as their parent cells, which may represent novel therapeutic agents for the treatment of autoimmune diseases including T1D. In comparison with their parent cells, stem cell-derived EVs may have good safety profiles and can be easily stored and transported as cell-free products without losing their functions. Dr. Yong Zhao and his team summarized the current research progresses of stem cell-derived EVs for the treatment of T1D and published in the peer-reviewed journal Frontiers in Endocrinology on Jan. 12, 2022. For more information, please read the full article. 

Throne Welcomes Renowned Endocrinologist and Scientist, Dr. Theodore Mazzone, as Chief Medical Officer

Here at Throne Biotechnologies, we are pleased to announce Dr. Theodore Mazzone, M.D., as our new chief medical officer.

Dr. Mazzone has been a clinical physician, scientist, and professor for nearly forty years. He is an internationally-acclaimed endocrinologist having contributed significantly to the diabetes field in both patient facing practice and scientific research. 

He graduated from Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine with his doctor of medicine degree with distinction in 1977, before then completing his residency in Internal Medicine at the University of California Los Angeles in 1980, and his research and senior fellowship in Endocrinology, Metabolism, & Nutrition at the University of Washington Seattle in 1983. Since then, Dr. Mazzone has gone on to publish over 135 scientific articles, and has been named every year as one of “America’s Top Doctors,” “Castle Connolly’s America's Top Doctors,”  and “Chicago’s Top Doctors,” since 2001.

Dr. Mazzone was the Chairman of the Department of Medicine at NorthShore University’s Health System, a six-hospital integrated healthcare system that is nationally ranked and is a major affiliate of the University of Chicago Pritzker School of Medicine He has also served in other leadership positions, within organizations such as the American Heart Association, the American Diabetes Association, and the American Board of Internal Medicine for Endocrinology and Metabolism.

He was also a tenured  Professor of Medicine at Rush University Medical Center, as well as the University of Illinois, where he was the founder and Director of the University of Illinois at Chicago’s Center for Clinical and Translational Science (2003) and continued as the center’s director for the following eight years.

At the University of Illinois, Dr. Mazzone worked closely with  Throne’s founding scientist, Dr. Yong Zhao, on the foundational research that eventually led to the Stem Cell Educator Therapy, Throne’s flagship technology for the cure of type 1 diabetes and other autoimmune diseases.

“Over the last 10 years, the Stem Cell Educator Therapy has seen some fantastic and inspiring clinical results,” said Dr. Mazzone. “I am now happy to rejoin the effort to bring this technology to patients who have diseases which are devastating in terms of their impact on the quality of life and duration of life and for which there is no cure.”

Welcome Dr. Mazzone, we are excited and thrilled to have you on our team!

New Molecular Mechanism for Stem Cell Educator Therapy: Suppression of B-Cell Activation by Cord Blood-Derived Stem Cells (CB-SC) via Galectin-9-Dependent Cell Contact Mechanism

Over the last 10 years, CB-SC have been utilized in international multicenter clinical trials and designated to Stem Cell Educatorâ (SCE) therapy for the treatment of autoimmune disease including type 1 diabetes (T1D), alopecia areata (AA), and other chronic metabolic inflammation-associated diseases (e.g., type 2 diabetes). Mechanistic studies have demonstrated that CB-SC displayed the strong immune modulation on T cells and monocytes such as inhibition of T-cell activation and proliferation, percentage reductions of effector memory T cells (TEM) and induction of the differentiation of monocytes into anti-inflammation type 2 macrophages (M2). However, it remains to unfold the mechanistic modulation of CB-SC on B cells.

B cells have an important role in maintaining homeostasis and the adaptive immune response through antibody production, antigen presentation and the production of multiple cytokines. Dysfunctions of B cells are actively contributed to the pathogenesis of diabetes and multiple autoimmune diseases. Therefore, it is essential to correct B cell-associated immune dysfunctions for the treatment of autoimmune diseases. Recently, Dr. Yong Zhao and his team demonstrated the CB-SC-induced immunomodulation on activated B cells by inhibiting the B-cell proliferation and the activation of naïve B cells, down-regulating the differentiation of switched memory B cells, and reducing the production of immunoglobulins. These findings lead to a better understanding of the molecular mechanisms of Stem Cell Educator therapy to treat autoimmune diseases in clinics.

For more information, please read the preprint publication at the journal BioRxiv.

Stem Cell Educator Therapy Awarded First Place at the 2021 RESI Innovator’s Pitch Challenge

Last week, Throne Biotechnologies participated in the 3-Day Digital Redefining Early Stage Investments (RESI) June Conference that took place June 8-10th.

Among 49 participating life science companies, Throne received the most nominations categorizing Stem Cell Educator Therapy as the most innovative technology!

Stay tuned for an interview between Dr. Yong Zhao and Life Science Nation discussing Stem Cell Educator Therapy and what the future entails.

US FDA approves Stem Cell Educator Therapy for COVID-19 to begin phase 2 clinical trials

Throne has just received some incredible, long-awaited news that I have the great pleasure of sharing with you. 

The United States FDA has just approved Stem Cell Educator Therapy to treat severe COVID-19 in a new phase II clinical trial. This is the 3rd FDA phase II approval in addition to type 1 diabetes and alopecia areata. 

COVID-19 has proved fatal to countless people with a compromised immune system. Similar to the principle mechanisms in treating autoimmune diseases, Stem Cell Educator Therapy aims to reset and strengthen the compromised immune systems and thereby reducing the high mortality rate among severe COVID-19 patients. 

This new development holds significance for multiple reasons: 

1. This new IND approval will allow Throne to treat severe COVID-19 patients. This is significant because currently there are no effective therapies for rescuing severe patients. Due to this, there have been increasingly high mortality rates among severe COVID-19 patients. This clinical trial will provide Throne the opportunity to significantly reduce mortality rates. 

2. The infection of SARS-CoV-2 virus behind the COVID-19 pandemic involves multiple immune cells including T cells, B cells, monocytes, and macrophages. Conveniently, Stem Cell Educator Therapy has demonstrated its ability to correct multiple immune dysfunctions among these immune cells. In light of this, the new clinical trial will prove very effective in correcting the systemic inflammatory responses and their functional defects among COVID-19 patients. 

3. The FDA has approved this clinical trial to use a closed-loop system. This clinical technique adds to Throne’s therapeutic capabilities in administering Stem Cell Educator Therapy by a patient’s bedside. This was previously approved for an open-loop system that required offsite Education of the patient’s immune cells. 

4. Most notably, the success of this clinical trial will demonstrate the ability for Stem Cell Educator Therapy to treat infectious diseases. This opens up new therapeutic fields and commercial markets beyond diabetes and autoimmune diseases. 

While the logistics of this exciting research opportunity are still to be determined, we are very hopeful and excited for what the future holds as we proceed towards a new and healthy normal! 

Interview: 2 year type 1 diabetes patient follow up - blood sugar back to normal

Aaron was only 13 years old when he underwent the Stem Cell Educator Therapy clinical trials in 2018. Hear what happened two and a half years later!

JDCA Names Stem Cell Educator Therapy Among World's Top 7 Practical Cures for T1D

For the third time, Stem Cell Educator Therapy has been named one of the world's top 7 practical cures for type 1 diabetes in the 9th annual edition of 'The State of the Cure for Type 1 Diabetes 2020.'

Among the 594 active T1D human trials conducted in 2020, only 2% are pursuing a practical cure for the disease. Additionally, Stem Cell Educator Therapy is the only technology to reach Phase II/III.

Click the button below to read the full report released by the Juvenile Diabetes Cure Alliance.

The Sugar Science Podcast Dr. Yong Zhao discusses Stem Cell Educator Therapy

In the 45th episode of The Sugar Science Podcast, Dr. Yong Zhao discusses Tianhe Stem Cell Biotechnologies Inc. and the progress of clinical trials using Stem Cell Educator Therapy.

The(sugar)science is an interactive digital platform founded to curate the scientific conversation among type 1 diabetes (T1D) researchers. Their goal is to expedite a cure for T1D by promoting collaboration across diverse research disciplines. Dr. Yong Zhao was welcomed as a reputable contributor.

Click the button below to listen to the interview.

Pulmonary alveolar macrophages: the key player for the prevention and treatment of COVID-19

The pandemic of a new coronavirus infectious disease (COVID-19) is wreaking havoc worldwide, caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) has been recognized as the entry receptor for SARS-CoV-2 infecting host cells. To understand the immunopathology and advance the strategies for the prevention and treatment of COVID-19, Dr. Zhao’s team at Center for Discovery and Innovation of Hackensack Meridian health, examined the levels of ACE2 expression on different types of immune cells. Flow cytometry demonstrated that there was little to no expression of ACE2 on most of the human peripheral blood-derived immune cells including CD4+ T, CD8+ T, activated CD4+/CD8+ T, Tregs, Th17, NKT, B, NK cells, monocytes, dendritic cells, and granulocytes.  There was no ACE2 expression on platelets and very low level of ACE2 protein expression on the surface of human primary pulmonary alveolar epithelial cells. The ACE2 expression was markedly upregulated on the activated type 1 macrophages (M1). Immunohistochemistry demonstrated high expressions of ACE2 on human tissue macrophages, such as alveolar macrophages, Kupffer cells within livers, and microglial cells in brain at steady state. The data suggest that alveolar macrophages, as the frontline immune cells, may be directly targeted by the SARS-CoV-2 infection and therefore need to be considered for the prevention and treatment of COVID-19. This work has been published in the peer-reviewed journal Cytometry Part A  

Based on these evidence, Dr. Zhao proposed that lung macrophages may be directly targeted by the SARS-CoV-2 and play a critical role in the initiation and development of COVID-19. Post viral infection, the SARS-CoV-2 may either (1) be directly cleared by the healthy macrophages with asymptomatic or mild clinical symptoms or (2) destroy the dysfunctional macrophages and evoke the immune system with cytokine storm, leading to severe clinical symptoms such as high fever, hypoxia and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). This perspective may advance the understanding of the clinical course of COVID-19 and facilitate the development of prevention and treatment strategies. Considering all current approaches for the prevention and treatment of COVID-19, there are no therapies, either being tested or at the beginning of the pipeline, that directly focus on the modulation of macrophages. To this respect, it is critical to protect and restore the functions of alveolar macrophages (or other tissue macrophages) through immune modulations for the prevention and treatment of COVID-19, leading to being potentially beneficial to correct the viral inflammation, effectively ameliorate anti-viral immunity, efficiently reduce the viral load, improve clinical outcomes, expedite the patient recovery, and decline the rate of mortality in patients after being infected with SARS-CoV-2.

New mechanism for Stem Cell Educator therapy: immune modulation of platelet-derived mitochondria on memory CD4+ T Cells in humans

CD4+ T cells are one of the key immune cells contributing to the immunopathogenesis of type 1 diabetes (T1D) and other autoimmune diseases. Specifically, autoimmune memory CD4+ T cells become “stumbling blocks” that hinder most attempts to treat or heal T1D and other autoimmune diseases. Stem Cell Educator (SCE) therapy is the leading technology to date to safely and efficiently correct autoimmunity and restore β-cell function in T1D patients, and display lasting reversal of autoimmune memory T cells in Caucasian T1D subjects.

A new study from Dr. Yong Zhao’s lab at Center for Discovery and Innovation of Hackensack Meridian Health, demonstrated that platelet-derived mitochondria act as novel immune modulators directly on CD4+ T cells through C-X-C motif chemokine receptor 4 (CXCR4) and its ligand stromal cell-derived factor-1 (SDF-1), regulating the anti-CD3/CD28 bead-activated CD4+ T cells. The results included an up-regulation of Naïve and central memory (TCM) CD4+ T cells, the down-regulation of effector memory (TEM) CD4+ T cells, and modulations of cytokine productions and gene expressions. Since the platelet numbers were increased in T1D subjects after receiving SCE therapy, which may release more mitochondria into blood circulation, the immunomodulation of platelet-derived mitochondria provides additional mechanisms underlying the SCE therapy for the treatment of T1D and other autoimmune diseases. This work has been published in the peer-reviewed journal International Journal of Molecular Sciences.

High expression of angiotensin-converting enzyme-2 (ACE2) on tissue macrophages that may be targeted by virus SARS-CoV-2 in COVID-19 patients

Angiotensin-converting enzyme-2 (ACE2) has been recognized as the binding receptor for the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) that infects host cells, causing the development of the new coronavirus infectious disease (COVID-19). To better understand the pathogenesis of COVID-19 and build up the host anti-viral immunity, Dr. Zhao and his team examined the levels of ACE2 expression on different types of immune cells including tissue macrophages. Flow cytometry demonstrated that there was little to no expression of ACE2 on most of the human peripheral blood-derived immune cells including CD4+ T, CD8+ T, activated CD4+ T, activated CD8+ T, CD4+CD25+CD127low/- regulatory T cells (Tregs), Th17 cells, NKT cells, B cells, NK cells, monocytes, dendritic cells (DCs), and granulocytes.  Additionally, there was no ACE2 expression (< 1%) found on platelets. The ACE2 expression was markedly increased on the activated macrophages. Immunohistochemistry demonstrated that high expressions of ACE2 were colocalized with tissue macrophages, such as alveolar macrophages found within the lungs and Kupffer cells within livers of mice. Flow cytometry confirmed the very low level of ACE2 expression on human primary pulmonary alveolar epithelial cells. These data indicate that alveolar macrophages, as the frontline immune cells, may be directly targeted by the SARS-CoV-2 infection and therefore need to be considered for the prevention and treatment of COVID-19. For more information, please read the preprint publication at the journal BioRxiv.

Generation of Hematopoietic-Like Stem Cells from Adult Human Peripheral Blood Following Treatment with Platelet-Derived Mitochondria

Stem-cell research has the potential to revolutionize treatments for certain life-changing injuries and devastating human diseases. For over three decades now, the most common stem-cell therapy approved by the FDA has been hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT) (also termed hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, HSCT) for the treatment of bone marrow failure, malignant blood disorders, post-chemotherapy and/or -radiation cell regeneration, genetically based blood disorders, and autoimmune diseases. However, several major limitations have restricted the broad clinical application of allogeneic HCT, including the difficulty in identifying a fully human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-matched or haploidentical donor, the scarcity of CD34+ hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) amongst all sources of harvested cells (£1%), and, in particular, the incidence of graft-versus-host disease (GVHD), opportunistic infections, and toxicities associated with immunosuppressive drugs and radiation. To overcome these obstacles, researchers have evaluated whether embryonic stem (ES) cells and induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells can be manipulated to produce HSCs through reprogramming by small molecules or by viral transduction of transcription factors. Thus far, these approaches have been limited by an inability to generate true functional HSCs in sufficient numbers for therapeutic use, as well as safety and ethical concerns and potential immune rejection issues to ES or iPS derivatives. Alternative approaches are needed to circumvent these limitations.

    More recently, a new published study from Dr. Yong Zhao and his team at Center for Discovery and Innovation, Hackensack Meridian Health, demonstrated the differentiation of adult peripheral blood-derived insulin-producing cells (designated PB-IPC) into multipotent stem cells after the treatment with platelet-derived mitochondria (designated Mitochondrial Reprogramming). Here, ex vivo and transplantation studies in the irradiated mice established that treatment with platelet-derived mitochondria can reprogram the transformation of adult PB-IPC into functional CD34+ hematopoietic stem cells (HSC)-like cells, leading to the production of blood cells such as T cells, B cells, monocytes/macrophages, granulocytes, red blood cells, and megakaryocytes (MKs)/platelets. These findings revealed a novel function of mitochondria in directly contributing to cellular reprogramming and the generation of pluripotent stem cells, thus overcoming the limitations and safety concerns of using conventional technologies to reprogram embryonic stem (ES) and induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells in regenerative medicine. This work has been published in peer-reviewed journal International Journal of Molecular Sciences.

Generation of multipotent stem cells from adult human peripheral blood following the treatment with platelet-derived mitochondria

Autologous stem cells are highly preferred for cellular therapy to treat human diseases. Mitochondria are organelles normally located in cytoplasm as a power house to energize cellular activities. Using the purified mitochondria from human blood platelets, a new study from Dr. Yong Zhao and his team at Center for Discovery and Innovation, Hackensack Meridian Health, demonstrated the differentiation of adult peripheral blood-derived insulin-producing cells (designated PB-IPC) into multipotent stem cells and giving rise to three-germ layer-derived cells after the treatment with platelet-derived mitochondria. The mitochondria-treated PB-IPC exhibited high efficiency of differentiations toward retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) cells and neuronal cells in the presence of different inducers. Thus, these cells offer great promise as a solution for the current bottlenecks associated with conventional stem cell transplants and have tremendous potential for patient benefit in the clinic. This work was published in peer-reviewed journal Cells.

Existence of Circulating Mitochondria in Human and Animal Peripheral Blood

For decades, mitochondria have been considered as “a cellular power plant” to generate ATP through oxidative phosphorylation and capable of energizing cellular activities.

Mitochondria are usually located in the cytoplasm of cells. Recently, Dr. Yong Zhao’s lab, at Center for Discovery and Innovation, found circulating mitochondria in human and animal blood. Electron microscopy confirmed the presence of mitochondria in adult human blood plasma. Flow cytometry analyses demonstrated that circulating mitochondria from the plasma of human cord blood and adult peripheral blood displayed the immune tolerance-associated membrane molecules such as CD270 and PD-L1 (programmed cell death-ligand 1). Similar data were obtained from fetal bovine serum (FBS) and horse serum of different vendors. Mitochondria remained detectable even after 56 ◦C heat inactivation. These findings suggested that the existence of circulating mitochondria in blood may function as a novel mediator, leading to the energy balance and cross-talk among cells, tissues, and organs, and maintenance of homeostasis. Additionally, plasma-related products should be cautiously utilized in cell cultures and clinical studies due to the mitochondrial contamination. This work has been published in peer-reviewed journal International Journal of Molecular Sciences.

Releasing Exosomes—A new mechanism underlying the immune modulation of Stem Cell Educator therapy

Over last 10 years, Dr. Yong Zhao and his team developed the Stem Cell Educator (SCE) therapy, which harnesses the unique therapeutic potential of cord blood-derived stem cells (CB-SC) to treat the multiple immune dysfunctions. Clinical studies demonstrated the immune modulation of CB-SC for the treatment of type 1 diabetes, type 2 diabetes, alopecia areata and other autoimmune diseases, with long-lasting clinical efficacy. To determine the molecular mechanisms underlying Stem Cell Educator therapy, Dr. Zhao’s research lab at Center for Discovery and Innovation of Hackensack Meridian Health, found that CB-SC-derived exosomes (a small vesicles about 100 nm) display multiple immune modulations and primarily target on monocytes, which gave rise to spindle-like macrophages displaying type 2 macrophage (M2) surface markers and up-regulating an expression of immune tolerance-related cytokines after the treatment with exosomes. SCE therapy has the potential to revolutionize the treatment of diabetes and multiple autoimmune diseases through CB-SC-mediated immune modulation, without the safety and ethical concerns associated with conventional immune and/or stem cell-based approaches. This work has been published in peer-reviewed journal Frontiers in Immunology today.